Law Example For Free - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3248 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Compare and contrast essay Did you like this example? What is law? Law, in its widest sense, means and involves a uniformity of behavior, a constancy of happenings or a cause of events, rules of action, whether in the phenomena of nature or in the ways rational human beings. In its general sense law means an order of the universe, of events, of things or actions. In simple words, Law may be referred to as a body of rules that are determined and enforced by the state and that are intended to channel behaviour and to resolve certain adverse events. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Law Example For Free" essay for you Create order Thus a legal rule might forbid littering in a park and impose a Rs 500/- fine for its violation, might impose expectation damages for violation of a contract, or might declare murder a crime and punish it with a sentence of atleast of 10 years of imprisonment.[1] The effectiveness of law enforcement depends, other things being equal, on the magnitude of sanctions and on the probability with which they are imposed for violations. The magnitude of sanctions is chosen by the state and can be as high as the wealth of violator if monetary and as a life term if imprisonment. The probability of sanctions depends on the actions of private parties who might bring the suit if the violation is civil and on effort of public enforcement agents, otherwise.[2] Keeping a practical view in mind it is necessary to look into some definitions of law. Definations of Law: According to Salmond à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the law may be defined as the body of the principles recognized and applied by the State in the administration of justiceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . According to Austin, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“A law, in the strict sense, is a general command of the sovereign individual or the sovereign body, issued to those in subjectivity and enforced by the physical power of the State. According to Austin, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“law is the aggregate of rules set by men as politically superior or sovereign to men as politically subjectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . According to Duguit, law is essentially and exclusively a social fact. It is in no sense a body of rules laying down rights. Foundation of law is in the essential requirements of the community life. Thus Duguits definition gives a moral dimension to law. Holmes J. says that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the prophesy of what Courts will do, in fact, and nothing more pretentious, are what I mean by lawà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . While Dias says, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Law consists largely of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"oughtà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (normative) propositions prescribing how people o ught to behave. The à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"oughtsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ of laws are variously dictated by social, moral, economic, political and other purposesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . Thus some definitions ascribe a moral quality to law while some donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t do so expressly. Thus it is necessary to look into what is morality. What is morality? Morality may be defined as Conformance to a recognized code, doctrine, or system of rules of what is right or wrong and to behave accordingly. No system of morality is accepted as universal, and the answers to the question What is morality? differ sharply from place to place, group to group, and time to time. For some it means conscious and deliberate effort in guiding ones conduct by reason based on fairness and religious beliefs. For others it is, what the majority then and there happen to like, and immorality is what they dislike.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [3] Morality may be equated with order and has as its object human actions that are ordere d to one another and to some end. The idea of value (good or end) is the crux of any moral system since the concept of value is a primary concept in the order of our practical concepts, i.e., ultimate in its genus. Hence the moral act is a combination of the subject that makes the act (rational and free act) and the object that is intended (objective goods and values that result from this activity); objectively the moral act is made up of three elements-the object, the end and the circumstance. Therefore rational human nature is the norm of morality, and morality is the transformation of a known order of values. To put it quite succinctly, morality is nothing more than conformity with the rule which regulates human life: namely, the rule of reason. Thus the essence of morality is mans approach to his goal; mans particular goal is the perfection of his spiritual and moral nature and his ultimate goal is union with God.[4] In general a moral rule has it that, when a person obeys th e rule, he will tend to feel the sentiment known as virtue, and if he disobeys the rule he will feel the sentiment known as guilt. A moral rule also has the property that, when a person obeys a rule and is observed to have done so by another party, that party may bestow praise on the first party who will enjoy the praise; and if the person disobeys the rule and is observed to have done so by another party, the second party will tend to disapprove the first party, who will dislike the disapproval.[5] Enforcement of moral rules comes about through internal incentives of virtue for obeying the rules and guilt for not doing so. Enforcement is also effected by external incentives, such as if a person believes that his conduct will be observed by others, who will reward him with praise for doing good or chastise him for not doing so, he will be lead to do good.[6] The effectiveness of enforcement of moral rules depends in part on the magnitude of moral incentives, i.e. on how much g uilt and virtue, and admonition and praise, matter to individuals. The degree to which they matter is shaped by, and determined hand in hand with, socialization and inculcation that governs the absorption of rules themselves. In any case moral sanctions have definite limits. The effectiveness of moral incentives also depends on their likelihood of application, in respect to which one must distinguish the internal from the external moral incentives. The internal incentives of guilt and virtue function automatically for a person knows what he does and cannot hide from it. By contrast external incentives operate only if others observe conduct and respond with praise or disapproval.[7] Thus, with a basic idea of morality being presented, it is necessary to look into the relation between law and morality. A COMPARISION OF LAW AND MORALITY Law brings with itself some reflections of public morality, but can law be separated from morality? The relation between law and morality c an beb understood only after looking at the views of Hart, Fuller and Benthem. Broadly there are two schools, the positivist, which feels that law and morality can be separated and the naturalist which feels the the two are inseperable. Gustav Radbruch, a Jew by birth lived in Germany prior to Second World War. He was a firm believer in à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“positivistà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  doctrine. After seeing the atrocities perpetrated by Nazi regime on the Jews under Nazi laws he changed his belief and became a staunch supporter of Natural Law Theory and exhorted everybody to discard the doctrine of the separation of law and morals.[8] This was also a provocation for Prof Hart to initiate this discourse. The conflicts faced by the German jurists in post war Germany, is well illustrated by a category of cases which may be called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“informer casesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ .[9] One such case is discussed by both Prof Hart and Prof Fuller. The case is as under [10] In 1944 a German sold ier came home from far front for a short visit. In his conversation with his wife he criticized the Hitler government and Nazi Party. He even expressed his dismay that the man who attempted to assassinate Hitler did not succeed. During his long absence there were other men in her life and hence she was keen to get rid of her husband. After his departure to war front the wife reported his remarks to the local leader of the Nazi party. The husband was tried by a military tribunal and sentenced to death. However he was not executed. After a short period of imprisonment, he was sent to the front again. After the collapse of the Nazi regime, a case was initiated against for illegally depriving the husband of his freedom. After the collapse of the Nazi regime, the wife was brought to trial for having procured unlawfully the imprisonment of her husband. The wifeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s defense was that she was required to furnish such information to the authorities under the Nazi statutes an d she did not commit any crime. The court of appeal which decided the case held that the statute under which the wife was claiming protection was contrary to the sound conscience and sense of justice of all decent human beings.[11] Hence it was reasoned that she could not be given protection under such statute. This reasoning became a precedent in many other informer cases. This reasoning was followed in many cases which have been hailed as a triumph of the doctrines of natural law and as signaling the overthrow of positivism.[12] According to Prof Hart there were only two options: a) to let the woman go free because the statute protected her; b) to make a retrospective legislation repealing the statute under which she claimed protection.[13] Because retrospective legislation is anathema in most criminal justice system the woman should have been allowed to go free if integrity of judicial principles was to be preserved. Prof Hart considers it a cardinal mistake of the Court of Ap peal to introduce the concept of morality of the law, under which she was claiming protection, to say that law was no law at all. Professor Hartà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s views Prof Hart believes in the theories of law as put forward by jurists like Bentham and Austin. These jurists propounded utilitarian theory of law. Bentham and Austin, constantly insisted on the need to distinguish, firmly and with the maximum of clarity, law as it is from law as it ought to be.[14] Austin formulated the doctrine: The existence of law is one thing; its merit or demerit is another.[15] A judge deciding a case should go by law as it is. Prof. Hart points out that all cases may not fall exactly within the law as it is which he calls the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"coreà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. There will be cases in the penumbra of law. Hartà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s view is that morals can be an influential factor in deciding cases in the penumbra. Bentham criticized Natural Law theory on the ground that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… “the natural tendency of such a doctrine is to impel a man, by the force of conscience, to rise up in arms against any law whatever that he happens not to likeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ .[16] Bentham also feared that under natural law theory courts might be legally bound to decide in accordance with what they thought just or best.[17] Such an approach can lead to all round confusion. Prof Hart presents the discussion of separation of law and morals as a problem of separating à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“law as it isà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“law as it ought to beà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . He criticizes natural law thinkers for ignoring this difference. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Prof Hart identifies the essentials of positivism as the following:[18] (i) The contention that laws are commands of human beings, (ii) The contention that there is no necessary connection between law and morals or law as it is and ought to be (iii) A legal system is a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“closed logical systemà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  in whi ch correct legal decisions can be deduced by logical means from predetermined legal rules without reference to social aims, policies, moral standards, Prof Hart also deals with the issue lack of precision in the words used in any human language and the role of this factor in judicial interpretation. While applying legal rules to the facts of a case it become necessary quite often to decide the meaning of the words in a statute and to decide whether the words used covers the facts to be decided. Sometime à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“standard instancesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  of the words may not be sufficient to give proper effect to the law. Prof Hart calls these as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“problems of the penumbraà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ .[19] Problems of penumbra cannot be solved by logical deduction. The criterion which makes a decision sound in such cases is some concept of what the law ought to be.[20] This is where a moral judgment is made about what law ought to be. This is called by Prof. Hart as necessary à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“intersection between law and moralsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ .[21] Prof Fullerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s views: Fuller on the other hand believes in the Natural Theory of Law and the moral foundations of a legal order. So for him law should always conform to the idea of Godà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s justice. He emphasizes the view point that fidelity to law can be achieved only if law is consistent with morals at all stages that is during its making and during its application by the court whether the case is in the core or the penumbra of law. The primary concern of Prof Hart is to preserve the integrity of the concept of law.[22] For Prof Fuller fidelity to law is of utmost importance. He argues that there will be fidelity to law only if laws are consistent with moral values of the people who have to follow law. People comply with law only if they are convinced that the law is for common good. That is to say for achieving fidelity to law, Law should have moral foundations. The Balance The conflict between law and morals came to sharp focus in the predicament faced by the German Court after the collapse of the Nazi Regime. It was not possible to declare all the laws made by the Nazi regime and actions of citizens in conformity with such laws to be illegal. This would have resulted in total destabilization of the society. On the other hand some of the laws made by Nazi regime was so repulsive to human morals that there was a need for disapproving actions taken in conformity with such wicked laws. There was also a need to send a message that the new regime does not approve all the wicked laws of the Nazi regime Thus on the one hand, there was a moral duty to obey law. On the other hand, there was a moral duty to do what people thought (after the war) was right and decent. The fundamental postulate of positivism that law must be strictly severed from morality seems to deny the possibility of any bridge between the obligation to obey law and other moral obligations.[23] Thus the German Courts faced a serious dilemma in restoring both respect for law and respect for justice. Essentially Radbruch saw the dilemma as that of meeting the demands of order, on the one hand, and those of good order, on the other.[24] Order by itself is no good unless it serves some purpose for the society. So we should not get obsessed with just order. At the same time in the process of seeking good order we should lose order itself leading to anarchy. As we seek to make our order good, we can remind ourselves that justice itself is impossible without order, and that we must not lose order itself in the attempt to make it good.[25] Thus we must strive for a balance. Homosexuality: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“God created Adam and Eve, not Adam and Steveà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [26] This quote summarises the attitude of morality developed along the lines of religion with regard to homosexuality. The Church has always condemned the practice of homosexuality vehemently. T he Bible preaches that a man may not lie with a man in a way he lies with a woman.[27] Unlike the West, the Hindu society does not have the concept of sexual orientation that classifies males on the basis of who they desire. However, there is a strong, ancient concept of third gender, which is for individuals who have strong elements of both male and female in them. Sexuality between men (as distinct from third genders) has nevertheless thrived, mostly unspoken, informally, within mens spaces, without being seen as different in the way its seen in the West. [28] In India homosexuality was criminalized in 1861 by the Britishers through Section 377 of the India Penal Code. It criminalized carnal intercourse. Contemporary to the global movements for giving rights to the homosexuals, the Indian movement has also been running. In 2009 it got a huge success when the High Court of Delhi in Naz Foundation v. Govt. of NCT Delhi ruled the Section 377 of IPC as unconstitutional and th us decriminalized homosexuality. But in 2013 the Supreme Court of India overruled the judgement of the High Court of Delhi and recriminalized homosexuality. In the modern Indian society those opposing homosexuality argue that it is against morality and Indian culture. However if one delves into history one would easily find out that this homophobia was part of a more generalized attack on Indian sexual mores and practices undertaken by British missionaries as well as educators. It is evident not only in the anti-sodomy law introduced by the British in the Indian Penal Code of 1860 but also in the deliberate heterosexualization of entire literary canons and genres. This is one reason why modern institutions such as the police force, and educational as well as religious organizations today typically respond to same-sex unions with horror and even violence.[29] Thus, a slow and gradual change in morals lead to an inherent opposition among a large of population against homosexu ality. This subsequently impacted the law as well. These acts of consensual homosexuality, which was once recognized as acceptable in the society thus became totally unacceptable. The major argument against the validity of Section 377 of the IPC in the Naz Foundation cases was that it violated right to life under Article 21, since the acts were consensual acts. Thus it was argued that since this rule violated a constitutional law which are part of the very basic laws of the land, the section should be declared void. However, on the other hand inspite of the fact that Section 377 of IPC is not contained in the chapter of offences against morality and is instead contained in the chapter on offences against body it was argued that these acts violated morality. Finally Section 377 was declared to be valid by the Supreme Court. Thus it is quite clear morality influenced the law against homosexuality. [1] Steven Shavell, Law versus Morality as Regulators of Conduct, 4 American Law Economic Review at 229. [2] Ibid. [3] Morality, Business Dictionary, https://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/morality.html#ixzz3ViKuh0pt , Accessed On 18th March, 2015. [4] Jurisprudence Law and Morality, Marquette Law Review, 1953, Vol 36, 319. [5] Steven Shavell, Law versus Morality as Regulators of Conduct, 4 American Law Economic Review at 230. [6] Ibid. [7] Supra note 5 at 232. [8] H.L.A. Hart, Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals, 71 Harvard.Law.Review, 616 (1958) [9] Lon L. Fuller, Positivism and Fidelity to Law -A Reply to Professor Hart, 71 Harvarad Law Review, 658 (1958) [10] Supra note 8 at 618-619. [11] Supra note 8 at 619. [12] Ibid [13] Ibid [14] Supra note 8 at 594. [15] Id at 596. [16] Ibid.; See also BENTHAM. , A COMMENT ON THE COMMENTAR1ES 49 (1928) [17] Id. At 599. [18] Supra note 8 at 601-602. [19] Id. At 607. [20] Supra note 8 at 608. [21] Ibid. [22] Supra note 9 at 635. [23] Supra note 9 at 656. [24] Supra note 9 at 657. [25] Ibid. [26] Victoria Clarke, What about the children? arguments against lesbian and gay parenting,Womens Studies International Forums, 555-570 (2001) [27] Tennessee Nashville, The Book of Discipline of The United Methodist Church 161G (The United Methodist Publishing House 2010). [28] S Asthana and R. Oostvogels , The social construction of male homosexuality in India, February 15th 2014, https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277953600001672 [29] Ruth Vanita, Same-sex wedings, Hindu traditions and modern India, Feminist Review, No. 91, pp. 47-60, (2009)

Foreign Aid For Africa From The International Community

In Dambisa Moyo’s book, Dead Aid, Moyo explains how foreign aid to Africa from the international community has not benefited the African countries as similar types of aid have been used to stabilize other nations successfully, such as the US aid in the reconstruction of post World War II Europe in the Marshall Plan. According to Moyo, the challenge that many African countries face is a cycle of aid dependency, â€Å"with aid’s help, corruption fosters corruption, nations quickly descend into a vicious cycle of aid. Foreign aid props up corrupt governments – providing them with freely usable cash† (Moyo, 2009, 49). These governments typically interfere and disregard the rule of law, transparency of civil institutions, and the protection of civil liberties, which, according to Moyo, makes â€Å"both domestic and foreign investment in poor countries unattractive† (Moyo, 2009, 49). As a result, fewer investments lead to declining economic growth which c ontributes to poverty. In a growing response to poverty, international donors â€Å"give more aid, which continues the downward spiral of poverty† (Moyo, 2009, 49), which perpetuates underdevelopment and ensures failure in the most aid dependent countries. The foundation of Moyo’s thesis is that foreign aid flooding Africa for the last half century has not worked and has actually harmed Africa’s growth more than it has helped. Moyo’s references that many countries that have substantially less aid than many of the African countries yet aid haveShow MoreRelatedForeign Aid Benefit Or Impairs A State Within The International Community1324 Words   |  6 Pages Elicia Alvarado 100244931 This essay will be discussing if Foreign Aid benefits or impairs a state within the international community. Foreign aid is essential for many states to survive. Foreign aid is a policy that highly developed countries (HDC’s), offer a range of support to less developed countries (LDC’s). There are many forms of aid from HDC’s. 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Mike Hunt Essay Example For Students

Mike Hunt Essay The InuitI. IntoductionThe Inuit are people that inhabit small enclaves in the coastal areas of Greenland, Arctic North America, and extreme northeastern Siberia. The name Inuit means the real people. In 1977 the Inuit Circumpolar Conference officially adopted Inuit as the replacement for the term â€Å"Eskimo.† There are several related linguistic groups of Arctic people. Many of these groups prefer to be called by their specific â€Å"tribal† names rather than as Inuits. In Alaska the term â€Å"Eskimo† is still commonly used. I. Physical Characteristics and Regional GroupingsThe Inuit vary within about 2 inches of an average height of 5 foot 4 inches, and they display metabolic, circulatory, and other adaptations to the Arctic climate. They inhabit an area spanning almost 3200 miles and have a wider geographical range than any other aboriginal people and are the most sparsely distributed people on earth. II. HistoryThe Inuit share many cultural traits with Siberian Arctic peoples and with their own closest relatives, the Aleuts. The oldest archaeological sites identifiable as Inuit date from about 2000 BC and are somewhat distinct from later Inuit sites. By about 1800 BC the highly developed Old Whaling or Bering Sea culture and related cultures had emerged in Siberia and in the Bering Strait region. In eastern Canada the Old Dorset culture flourished from about 1000 to 800 BC until about AD 1000 to 1300. The Thule Inuit, who by AD 1000 to 1200 had reached Greenland, overran the Dorset people. There, Inui t culture was influenced by medieval Norse colonists and, after 1700, by Danish settlers. III. Language and LiteratureThe languages of the Inuit people constitute a subfamily of the Eskimo-Aleut language family. A major linguistic division occurs in Alaska, according to whether the speakers call themselves Inuit or Yuit. The eastern branch of the subfamily stretches from eastern Alaska across Canada and through northern into southern Greenland. This subfamily is generally called Inupiaq in Alaska, but also Inuktitut in Canada and Kalaallisut in Greenland. It consists of many dialects, each understandable to speakers of neighboring dialects, although not to speakers of geographically distant dialects. The western branch, called Yupik, includes three distinct languages, Central Alaskan Yupik and Pacific Gulf Yupik in Alaska and Siberian Yupik in Alaska and Canada. Each of these has several dialects. The Inupiaq dialects have more than 40,000 speakers in Greenland and more than 20,000 in Alaska and Canada. About 17,000 people speak Yupik languages. In the former Soviet Union about 1,000 people spoke it. Explorers and traders do not learn these languages because they are some of the most complex and difficult in the world. They rely on a jargon composed of Danish, Spanish, Hawaiian, and Inupiaq and Yupik words. V. Social OrganizationThe manners and customs of the Inuit are remarkably uniform despite the widespread diffusion of the people. The family is the most significant social unit. Marriages are generally open to choice. The usual pattern is monogamy, but both polygyny and polyandry also happen. Marriage is based on a strict division of labor. The husband and wife have their own tools, household goods, and other personal possessions. Men build houses, hunt, and fish. Women cook, dress animal skins, and make clothing. If one does not take care and help ones kin they will be ridiculed by the community. In extreme cases they can be put to death. If someone of one group harms someone from another, there could be a possible blood feud. This is strongly d isapproved. Some groups control disputes by means of wrestling matches or song duels. These songs tend to be insulting. The loser of these might be driven from the community. .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5 , .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5 .postImageUrl , .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5 , .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5:hover , .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5:visited , .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5:active { border:0!important; } .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5:active , .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5 .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u58e0f64825e2bc687ac38005db9e69e5:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Metamorphosis EssayAlliances between groups that are not related are formed and maintained by gift giving and the showing of respect. The highest such form of gift giving occurs when a head of a household offers the opportunity of a temporary sexual liaison with the most valued adult women of his household. The women can refuse, then they present a different gift. VI. Provision of FoodThe Inuit mainly eats fish, seals, whales, and related sea mammals. The flesh of these is eaten cooked, dried, or frozen. The seal is their main winter food and most valuable resource. They are used for dog food, clothing, and materials for making boats, tents, and harpoons lines, as well as fuel for both light and heat. In Alaska and Canada, caribou are hunted in the summer. They also hunt polar bear, fox, hare, and Arctic birds, for important supplies. Whale, walrus, and caribou require longer hunting trips than one kinship group can do on there own. Many families go on seasonal hunting and fishing trips that take them from one end of a customary territory to the other, trading with other groups along the way. VII. Housing, Transportation, and ClothingIgloos are Inuit â€Å"iglu† houses. They come in two kinds. One is made from walrus or sealskin tents for the summer. The other is made of stone, with driftwood or whalebone frames and chinked and covered with moss or sod for the winter. The entrance is long and narrow. It is just high enough to have one person crawl through it. During long journeys some Inuit made winter houses out of snow blocks shaped in a dome. These houses are rare in Greenland and unknown in Alaska. At one time they were permanent winte r houses of the Inuit in central and eastern Canada. In the 20th century many Inuit have moved into towns to live in government built, western housing. The traditional way of transpiration is the kayak, the umiak, and the dogsled. The kayak is a lightweight canoe like hunting boat made of a wood frame completely covered with sealskin except for a round center opening, where one person sits. The skin around the person can be tightened to make the kayak waterproof. The umiak is a larger boat by about 30 feet long and 8 feet wide. It is made of a wood frame covered with walrus skin. It is used for whaling expeditions and to transport families and goods. The sled is pulled by a team of native dogs. Until iron runners were introduced, ivory and whalebone were mainly used. In the last half-century motorboats and snowmobiles have become important modes of travel. Traditionally the Inuit men and women dress the same. They wear waterproof boots, double-layer trousers, and the parka; a tight-fitting double-layer pullover jacket with a hood, all made of skins and furs. An enlarged hood forms a convenient cradle for nursing infants. VIII. Religious BeliefsTraditionally the Inuit believe in a form of animism. Animism is the belief that all objects and living beings have a spirit. Everything occurs through some spirit. Spirits can effect people’s lives intrinsically. Although prayer can not control them, magical charms and talismans can control them. The shaman is the person that can best control the spirits. They are usually consulted to heal illnesses and resolve serious problems. Communal and individual taboos are observed to avoid offending animal spirits, and animals killed for food must be handled with prescribed rituals. Inuit rituals and myths reflect preoccupation with survival in a hostile environment. Vague beliefs of an afterlife or reincarnation exist, but these receive little emphasis. Most beliefs center on preparation for the hunt, and myths tend to deal with the relations that exist between humans, animals, and the environment. In arctic Canada, Greenland, Labrador, and southern Alaska, large numbers of Inuit have converted to Christianity. IX. Adjusting to ChangeIn the 20th century the Inuit have become more assertive, forming organizations to represent their interests, such as the Alaska Federation of Natives. The organizations have been instrumental in resolving land claims since 1971. In Greenland the 1970’s and 1980’s were marked by a campaign for home rule from Denmark. In December 1991 the Canadian government agreed to the creation of a new unit known as Nunavut in eastern Northwest Territories. Approved in May 1992, it will have an area of about 2 million square km (ab out 772,500 square miles). The Inuit people will have political control and broad economic rights over the territory. .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0 , .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0 .postImageUrl , .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0 , .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0:hover , .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0:visited , .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0:active { border:0!important; } .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0:active , .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0 .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ud0ab47bf12db80a272f0aa7ea09469f0:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Diary Of Anne Frank EssayThe international Circumpolar Conference, founded in 1977, meets every three years. It provides a forum for Greenland and North American Inuit to discuss common problems, lobby for an Inuit voice in the planning of economic development, and promote the preservation of the environment. BibliographyRay, Dorothy Jean. Aleut and Eskimo Art: Tradition and Innovation in South Alaska. Washington, 1981, 1986. Scholarly survey of traditional and market art. Companion book on North Alaska, 1977. Burch, Ernest S. Jr. The Eskimos. Oklahoma, 1988. Heavily illustrated introduction to the traditional culture of the Inuit and the Aleut. Wilder, Edna. Once Upon an Eskimo Time. Alaska Northwest, 1987. An accurate account of Eskimo life before the white man. Elibrary.com , http://www.elibrary.com/s/encartal/search.cgi, line 418:Science Essays